The structural basis for dynamic DNA binding and bridging interactions which condense the bacterial centromere.

The ParB protein forms DNA bridging interactions around parS to condense DNA and earmark the bacterial chromosome for segregation. The molecular mechanism underlying the formation of these ParB networks is unclear. We show here that while the central DNA binding domain is essential for anchoring at parS, this interaction is not required for DNA condensation. Structural analysis of the C-terminal domain reveals a dimer with a lysine-rich surface that binds DNA non-specifically and is essential for DNA condensation in vitro. Mutation of either the dimerisation or the DNA binding interface eliminates ParB-GFP foci formation in vivo. Moreover, the free C-terminal domain can rapidly decondense ParB networks independently of its ability to bind DNA. Our work reveals a dual role for the C-terminal domain of ParB as both a DNA binding and bridging interface, and highlights the dynamic nature of ParB networks in Bacillus subtilis.

Combining recombinant ribonuclease U2 and protein phosphatase for RNA modification mapping by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Ribonuclease (RNase) mapping of modified nucleosides onto RNA sequences is limited by RNase availability. A codon-optimized gene for RNase U2, a purine selective RNase with preference for adenosine, has been designed for overexpression using Escherichia coli as the host. Optimal expression conditions were identified enabling generation of milligram-scale quantities of active RNase U2. RNase U2 digestion products were found to terminate in both 2',3'-cyclic phosphates and 3'-linear phosphates. To generate a homogeneous 3'-linear phosphate set of products, an enzymatic approach was investigated. Bacteriophage lambda protein phosphatase was identified as the optimal enzyme for hydrolyzing cyclic phosphates from RNase U2 products. The compatibility of this enzymatic approach with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) RNA modification mapping was then demonstrated. RNase U2 digestion followed by subsequent phosphatase treatment generated nearly 100% 3'-phosphate-containing products that could be characterized by LC-MS/MS. In addition, bacteriophage lambda protein phosphatase can be used to introduce (18)O labels within the 3'-phosphate of digestion products when incubated in the presence of H2(18)O, allowing prior isotope labeling methods for mass spectrometry to include digestion products from RNase U2.

Specific and non-specific interactions of ParB with DNA: implications for chromosome segregation.

The segregation of many bacterial chromosomes is dependent on the interactions of ParB proteins with centromere-like DNA sequences called parS that are located close to the origin of replication. In this work, we have investigated the binding of Bacillus subtilis ParB to DNA in vitro using a variety of biochemical and biophysical techniques. We observe tight and specific binding of a ParB homodimer to the parS sequence. Binding of ParB to non-specific DNA is more complex and displays apparent positive co-operativity that is associated with the formation of larger, poorly defined, nucleoprotein complexes. Experiments with magnetic tweezers demonstrate that non-specific binding leads to DNA condensation that is reversible by protein unbinding or force. The condensed DNA structure is not well ordered and we infer that it is formed by many looping interactions between neighbouring DNA segments. Consistent with this view, ParB is also able to stabilize writhe in single supercoiled DNA molecules and to bridge segments from two different DNA molecules in trans. The experiments provide no evidence for the promotion of non-specific DNA binding and/or condensation events by the presence of parS sequences. The implications of these observations for chromosome segregation are discussed.

The intrinsically disordered domain of the antitoxin Phd chaperones the toxin Doc against irreversible inactivation and misfolding.

The toxin Doc from the phd/doc toxin-antitoxin module targets the cellular translation machinery and is inhibited by its antitoxin partner Phd. Here we show that Phd also functions as a chaperone, keeping Doc in an active, correctly folded conformation. In the absence of Phd, Doc exists in a relatively expanded state that is prone to dimerization through domain swapping with its active site loop acting as hinge region. The domain-swapped dimer is not capable of arresting protein synthesis in vitro, whereas the Doc monomer is. Upon binding to Phd, Doc becomes more compact and is secured in its monomeric state with a neutralized active site.

Type III restriction endonucleases are heterotrimeric: comprising one helicase-nuclease subunit and a dimeric methyltransferase that binds only one specific DNA.

Fundamental aspects of the biochemistry of Type III restriction endonucleases remain unresolved despite being characterized by numerous research groups in the past decades. One such feature is the subunit stoichiometry of these hetero-oligomeric enzyme complexes, which has important implications for the reaction mechanism. In this study, we present a series of results obtained by native mass spectrometry and size exclusion chromatography with multi-angle light scattering consistent with a 1:2 ratio of Res to Mod subunits in the EcoP15I, EcoPI and PstII complexes as the main holoenzyme species and a 1:1 stoichiometry of specific DNA (sDNA) binding by EcoP15I and EcoPI. Our data are also consistent with a model where ATP hydrolysis activated by recognition site binding leads to release of the enzyme from the site, dissociation from the substrate via a free DNA end and cleavage of the DNA. These results are discussed critically in the light of the published literature, aiming to resolve controversies and discuss consequences in terms of the reaction mechanism.

Using immobilized enzymes to reduce RNase contamination in RNase mapping of transfer RNAs by mass spectrometry.

RNase (ribonuclease) mapping by nucleobase-specific endonucleases combined with mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical method for characterizing ribonucleic acids such as transfer RNAs. Typical free solution enzymatic digestion of RNA samples results in a significant amount of RNase being present in the sample solution analyzed by MS. In some cases, the RNase can lead to contamination of the high performance liquid chromatography and MS instrumentation. Here we investigate and compare several different approaches for reducing or eliminating contaminating RNase from the digested RNA sample before LC-MS analysis. Approaches using immobilized RNases were found to be most effective, with no enzyme carryover into the digested sample detected. Among the various options for immobilized RNases, we show that carbodiimide-based reactions can be used to couple RNases to carboxylic acid-terminated magnetic beads. The immobilized enzymes retain biological activity, are re-usable, and do not interfere with subsequent LC-MS analysis of the expected RNase digestion products. The use of immobilized RNases provides a simple approach for eliminating enzyme contamination in mass spectrometry-based RNase mapping experiments.